Keywords
Institutional Scarcity
Relational Processes
Relational Brokerage
Desistance
Bangladesh
Article Number
010Abstract
Post-prison reintegration is a socially negotiated process in which legal release must be translated into livelihood, belonging, trust, and a sustainable law-abiding life. This qualitative comparative case study examines how that process is shaped by institutional constraints and relational processes in Bangladesh. Drawing on 24 in-depth interviews and two focus group discussions, the study analyses family support, employment, stigma, reputation, community relations, informal brokerage, and post-release institutional assistance. The findings show that relationships frequently perform practical functions that formal systems do not consistently provide: families supply shelter and emotional security; trusted individuals broker employment and acceptance; and visible lawful work helps rebuild credibility. At the same time, these resources are conditional and unevenly distributed. The analysis develops an institutional-relational interpretation in which institutional scarcity alters the practical value of relational resources, increasing reliance on informal networks while potentially reproducing exclusion. The findings support a policy approach centred on continuity, brokerage, and coordinated community-based aftercare.References
Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47–88. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01093.x
Agnew, R. (2006). Pressured into crime: An overview of general strain theory. Oxford University Press.
Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance. Free Press.
Berg, M. T., & Huebner, B. M. (2011). Reentry and the ties that bind: An examination of social ties, employment, and recidivism. Justice Quarterly, 28(2), 382–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2010.498383
Berghuis, M. (2018). Reentry programs for adult male offender recidivism and reintegration: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 62(14), 4655–4676. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X18778448
Braithwaite, J. (1989). Crime, shame and reintegration. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511804618
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2019). Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 11(4), 589–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2019.1628806
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). One size fits all? What counts as quality practice in (reflexive) thematic analysis? Qualitative Research in Psychology, 18(3), 328–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2020.1769238
Chui, W. H., & Cheng, K. K.-Y. (2013). The mark of an ex-prisoner: Perceived discrimination and self-stigma of young men after prison in Hong Kong. Deviant Behavior, 34(8), 671–684. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2013.766532
Cid, J., & De la Encarnación, E. (2026). The process of reintegration: From prison to conditional release. Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, 12, Article 3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40865-026-00289-w
Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95–S120. https://doi.org/10.1086/228943
Cullen, F. T. (1994). Social support as an organizing concept for criminology: Presidential address to the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. Justice Quarterly, 11(4), 527–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829400092421
Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 532–550. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.1989.4308385
Emirbayer, M. (1997). Manifesto for a relational sociology. American Journal of Sociology, 103(2), 281–317. https://doi.org/10.1086/231209
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Prentice-Hall.
Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. University of California Press.
Jasni, M. A., Abu Bakar Ah, S. H., Mohd Yusoff, J. Z., Jasni, N. S., Md Shahid, K., Omar, N., & Azman, Z. (2019). From stigma to community’s discrimination: The experience of 16 former prisoners in Malaysia. e-Bangi: Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 16(4), 1–13.
Kabir, A. (2026). Methodological challenges in reintegration research: Evidence from Bangladesh. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 10(2), 1760–1777. https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2026.10200135
Khan, A. A., Ryland, H., Pathan, T., Ahmed, H. U., Hussain, A., & Forrester, A. (2021). Mental health services in the prisons of Bangladesh. BJPsych International, 18(4), 88–91. https://doi.org/10.1192/bji.2021.34
Laub, J. H., & Sampson, R. J. (1993). Turning points in the life course: Why change matters to the study of crime. Criminology, 31(3), 301–325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1993.tb01132.x
Li, D. (2026). Negotiating survival and dignity: The meaning of work among people formerly incarcerated for drug offenses in China. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 53(7), 1018–1034. https://doi.org/10.1177/00938548261424376
Li, Z., & Lin, X. (2025). Re-employment barriers: An empirical study on employment opportunities for Chinese ex-offenders. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 82, 100772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2025.100772
Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 363–385. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363
Liu, L. (2020). Family, parochial, and public levels of social control and recidivism: An extension of the systemic model of social disorganization. Crime & Delinquency, 66(6–7), 774–801. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128719901106
Maruna, S. (2001). Making good: How ex-convicts reform and rebuild their lives. American Psychological Association.
McNeill, F. (2012). Four forms of “offender” rehabilitation: Towards an interdisciplinary perspective. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 17(1), 18–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8333.2010.02004.x
Meng, Y., & Jiang, J. (2024). Visible body and invisible mind: Bureaucratic performance, self-rehabilitation, and the machinery of Chinese community corrections. Criminology & Criminal Justice. https://doi.org/10.1177/17488958241270877
Mia, M. T., Siraji, T. A., & Hossain, J. (2025). The prison system of Bangladesh: From recidivism to reformation. Asian People Journal, 8(2), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.37231/apj.2025.8.2.755
Ministry of Justice, Government of Japan. (2025). White paper on crime 2025. https://hakusyo1.moj.go.jp/en/74/nfm/mokuji.html
Minoura, S. (2018). Offender rehabilitation reform in Japan: Effective cooperation between professional and volunteer probation officers. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 54, 111–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2018.03.004
Mohamad, M. S., Ibrahim, F., Kamaluddin, M. R., & Voothayakumar, D. (2024). Hubungan di antara stigma sosial dan sokongan sosial terhadap penglibatan aktiviti masyarakat dalam kalangan bekas banduan. e-Bangi: Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 21(3), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.17576/ebangi.2024.2103.31
Mowen, T. J., & Boman, J. H. (2019). Do we have it all wrong? The protective roles of peers and criminogenic risks from family during prison reentry. Crime & Delinquency, 65(5), 681–704. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128718800286
Nabi, M. M., Siddiqua, R., & Faruk, M. O. (2024). Reintegration challenges of released prisoners: The case of Tangail Central Jail, Bangladesh. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 8(3S), 3066–3081. https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.803218S
O’Brien, B. C., Harris, I. B., Beckman, T. J., Reed, D. A., & Cook, D. A. (2014). Standards for reporting qualitative research: A synthesis of recommendations. Academic Medicine, 89(9), 1245–1251. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000000388
Pager, D. (2003). The mark of a criminal record. American Journal of Sociology, 108(5), 937–975. https://doi.org/10.1086/374403
Razzaque, M. A. (2026). Exploring problems and prospects of probation service in Bangladesh: A qualitative study. Journal of Social Development, 34(1), 190–200. https://doi.org/10.71253/jsd-iswr.dec25.34.1.09
Rubio-Arnal, A. (2026). The 6-form model of re/integration: From prison to community. The Howard Journal of Crime and Justice. https://doi.org/10.1111/hojo.70055
Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1993). Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life. Harvard University Press.
Santhosh, R., & Mathew, E. (2021). Social reintegration of released prisoners: An empirical analysis from two Indian states. International Annals of Criminology, 59(2), 200–222. https://doi.org/10.1017/cri.2021.18
Sharmin, S., Banarjee, S., & Parvez, M. (2021). Reintegration of the released prisoners into the community: A study in Tangail district. PSC Journal, 8(1), 52–67.
Shaw, C. R., & McKay, H. D. (1942). Juvenile delinquency and urban areas. University of Chicago Press.
Shiblezzaman, M. (2020). Existing probation and aftercare services in Bangladesh. Journal of Social Development, 32, 221–235.
Simonds, R. (2024). An early social support network analysis of men facing reentry. Journal of Criminal Justice, 94, 102255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2024.102255
Siennick, S. E., & Porter, L. C. (2026). Who succeeds? A review of theory and research on the moderators of post-incarceration outcomes. Annual Review of Criminology, 9, 127–150. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032924-112607
Singh, A., Boruah, B., & Rajkhowa, P. (2026a). Stigma and reintegration, lived experiences of short-term ex-prisoners in India. Discover Psychology, 6, 96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44202-026-00636-4
Singh, A., Boruah, B., & Rajkhowa, P. (2026b). Effectiveness of a longitudinal post-release intervention on reintegration pathways for short term ex-prisoners in India. Discover Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44202-026-00832-2
Tarzid, S., & Islam, M. S. (2026). Examining the state of rehabilitative prison in Bangladesh from global perspective. BAIUST Academic Journal, 6(1), Article 13. https://doi.org/10.63307/BAJ.6.1.013
Taylor, C. J. (2016). The family’s role in the reintegration of formerly incarcerated individuals: The direct effects of emotional support. The Prison Journal, 96(3), 341–360. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885516635085
Tong, A., Sainsbury, P., & Craig, J. (2007). Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): A 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 19(6), 349–357. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzm042
Visher, C. A., & Travis, J. (2003). Transitions from prison to community: Understanding individual pathways. Annual Review of Sociology, 29, 89–113. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.095931
Wang, X., Abu Bakar Ah, S. H., & Azman, Z. (2026). Practical social work interventions for community corrections offenders’ social support and adaptation: A self-report study from China. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 70(13–14), 1347–1370. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X251363248
Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: Design and methods (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.
Zhang, X. (2025). Labor market reentry among white-collar female ex-prisoners in China: A feminist desistance perspective. Feminist Criminology, 20(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/15570851241238469
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2026 Ahesan Kabir (Author)